Global, regional and national trends in statin utilisation in high-income and low/middle-income countries, 2015-2020.

OBJECTIVE: Prior studies have reported inequitable global access to essential medicines for cardiovascular disease (CVD) prevention, especially statins. Here we examine recent trends and disparities in statin utilisation at the income group, regional and country levels. DESIGN: Ecological study. Pharmaceutical sales data were used to examine statin utilisation in high-income counties (HICs) and low/middle-income countries (LMICs) from 2015 to 2020. Population estimates were obtained from the Global Burden of Disease. Fixed-effects panel regression analysis was used to examine associations between statin utilisation and country-level factors. SETTING: Global, including 41 HICs and 50 LMICs. PARTICIPANTS: Population older than 40 years of age. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES: Statin utilisation was measured using defined daily doses (DDDs) per 1000 population ≥40 years per day (TPD). RESULTS: Globally, statin utilisation increased 24.7% from 54.7 DDDs/TPD in 2015 to 68.3 DDDs/TPD in 2020. However, regional and income group disparities persisted during this period. In 2020, statin utilisation was more than six times higher in HICs than LMICs (192.4 vs 28.4 DDDs/TPD, p<0.01). Substantial disparities were also observed between LMICs, ranging from 3.1 DDDs/TPD in West African nations to 225.0 DDDs/TPD in Lebanon in 2020. While statin utilisation increased in most LMICs between 2015 and 2020, several experienced declines in utilisation, most notably Venezuela (-85.1%, from 92.3 to 14.0 DDDs/TPD). In LMICs, every $100 increase in per capita health spending was associated with a 17% increase in statin utilisation, while every 10% increase in out-of-pocket health spending was associated with a 11% decline (both p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Despite global increases in statin utilisation, there are substantial regional and country-level disparities between HICs and LMICs. To address global CVD disparities, policymakers should promote increased and equitable access to statins in LMICs.

Access to pharmacies and pharmacy services in New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Houston, 2015-2020.

BACKGROUND: Despite the importance of pharmacies in ensuring medications and health care needs are met, there is limited up-to-date information regarding access to pharmacies or their services in the United States. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate trends and disparities in access to pharmacies in 4 largest cities in the United States, New York City, Los Angeles, Houston, and Chicago, by neighborhood racial and ethnic composition from 2015 to 2020. METHODS: Data from the National Council for Prescription Drug Programs (2015-2020) and the American Community Survey (2015-2019) were used. We examined neighborhoods (i.e., census tracts) and evaluated disparities in "pharmacy deserts" (low-income neighborhoods (1) whose average distance to the nearest pharmacy was at least 1 mile or (2) whose average distance to the nearest pharmacy was at least 0.5 mile and at least 100 households had no vehicle access). We also evaluated the differences in pharmacy closures and the availability of pharmacy services. RESULTS: From 2015 to 2020, the percent of neighborhoods with pharmacy deserts declined in New York City (from 1.6% to 0.9% of neighborhoods, P < 0.01), remained stable in Los Angeles (13.7% to 13.4%, P = 0.58) and Houston (27.0% to 28.5%, P = 0.18), and increased in Chicago (15.0% to 19.9%, P < 0.01). Pharmacy deserts were persistently more common in Black and Latino neighborhoods in all 4 cities. As of 2020, pharmacies in Black and Latino neighborhoods were also more likely to close and less likely to offer immunization, 24-hour, and drive-through services than pharmacies in other neighborhoods. CONCLUSION: To reduce disparities in access to medications and health care services, including those in response to the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic (e.g., testing and vaccinations), policies that improve pharmacy access and expand the provision of pharmacy services in minority neighborhoods are critical.

Fewer Pharmacies In Black And Hispanic/Latino Neighborhoods Compared With White Or Diverse Neighborhoods, 2007-15.

The accessibility of pharmacies may be an overlooked contributor to persistent racial and ethnic disparities in the use of prescription medications and essential health care services within urban areas in the US. We examined the availability and geographic accessibility of pharmacies across neighborhoods based on their racial/ethnic composition in the thirty most populous US cities. In all cities examined, we found persistently fewer pharmacies located in Black and Hispanic/Latino neighborhoods than White or diverse neighborhoods throughout 2007-15. In 2015 there were disproportionately more pharmacy deserts in Black or Hispanic/Latino neighborhoods than in White or diverse neighborhoods, including those that are not federally designated Medically Underserved Areas. These disparities were most pronounced in Chicago, Illinois; Los Angeles, California; Baltimore, Maryland; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Milwaukee, Wisconsin; Dallas, Texas; Boston, Massachusetts; and Albuquerque, New Mexico. We also found that Black and Hispanic/Latino neighborhoods were more likely to experience pharmacy closures compared with other neighborhoods. Our findings suggest that efforts to increase access to medications and essential health care services, including in response to COVID-19, should consider policies that ensure equitable pharmacy accessibility across neighborhoods in US cities. Such efforts could include policies that encourage pharmacies to locate in pharmacy deserts, including increases to Medicaid and Medicare reimbursement rates for pharmacies most at risk for closure.